Blue Finland: Short History of Finland II: Middle Ages

Medieval Finland was still a land in the far-far north few had visited. The foreigners were mainly German merchants, Swedish officials or Dominican or Franciscan monks and priests. The trade went mainly through Stockholm. The life outside the few towns was similar than during the pagan era, although church spread its influence efficiently to the remote districts as well.

Importance of the waterways in the north
can be seen in this old map from the year 1544.

Finnish Middle ages began in the 11^th and 12^th centuries, when Finland slowly moved from pagan to Christian era. In the Karelia, the medieval era began around year 1300. The Finnish medieval era has been usually considered to have ended in the early 16th century. There are only about 300 written documents from Finnish middle ages and that is why archaeology is so important part of the research. Medieval era did not reach at all to the north most Finland (Lapland), where the historical era only began in 16th century.

In the early middle ages, Finland - or Eastland as it was first known - was a frontier land in many ways. There were few good roads and waterways were important passages. Most of the settlements were situated along these routes. It was waste land, where Swedes sent their convicted felons. It was - as it would be for centuries - a borderland between eastern and western European influence.

In the beginning of medieval era the Finland covered only what is now the southern and western parts of the modern country. The areas in the north were not densely inhabited and many were old hunting grounds of the Sami people as well as the Finns.

Original treaty of Nöteborg.

Finland was originally the name of the area in the southwestern corner of the country, that is now known as Finland Proper (Varsinais-Suomi). Most of the country was situated in the area, where the western Finnish culture is prominent. The eastern Finnish culture was prominent in the area, which was then under the Novgorod rule. Yet the influence of the outer powers was not the only difference, as there was older linguistic divide as well, that has under the centuries waned, especially during the 19th and 20th centuries. Due to different outer influences the cultures also developed to the different directions.

Yet the divide was not always the same, as some of the eastern Finns belong to the orthodox church and some used to be catholic. This was partly due to the border fluctuation between east and west.

The earlies and wildest era of the Finnish Middle-ages, so called crusade era, ended with the treaty of Nöteborg (Pähkinäsaari or Orekshovests) in august 1323. It was the first border settlement between Sweden and Novgorod. Three years later Novgorod made peace with Norwegians as well. The treaty was negotiated with the help of Hanseatic merchants (from Germany). The first border stretched from east by the Vyborg castle and ended near the Pyhäjoki river in the Gulf of Bothnia. The Finnic tribes, whose lands the new treaty split, had not been .

Olaf's castle (Olavinlinna) was founded 1475.

The treaty did not hinder the Swedish expansion for long . They spread their influences to the northern common areas, that were originally considered both Swedish and Novgorodian. The most of the border area was wilderness in the 14th century and border was not clearly marked. Swedes also misinterpreted the area the Olaf's castle (Olofsborg, Olavinlinna) was later built, to belong to the common area as well. The castle itself was built only in the end of 15th century, but Sweden had then already successfully colonized the area.

Kalmar Union was formed first in 1397. It included Scandinavian countries and their possessions. The participants of the Union retained their own laws. During the Union, the aristocrats were not very interested in Finnish issues and many things were in fact locally governed and the Union had very little influence on local politics. Most of the decision of the Union were made in Denmark, where there was not much interest in Finnish matters.

During the Union, there were conflict of interest between Denmark and Sweden, as Danish were interested in Hansa Union and Swedes in Russian matters. The Swedes tried to split out of the Union 1412 after Margaret I death. During 15th century the Swedes repeatedly tried to broke the Union. The Union finally broke up 1523, when Gustaf Vasa came to power in Sweden.

In medieval era - as well as later - Sweden was governed by an elected king and the council of aristocracy. Occasionally the meeting of the four estates - nobility, clergy, merchants and peasants - could be called together in diet (Riksdag) to make approve new laws or taxes.

Battle between Swedes and Russian according
Olaus Magnus1539

Even before the Christian and historical era, there was a tradition of folk meetings - called in Scandinavia ting (and in Finland käräjät) were local issues were decided and judgements for the wrongdoers decided. Similar meeting either in both local and province level continued through medieval era. Province level meetings were also meetings of the four estates. Provincial government was formed in 1320s and 1330s in Finland, but they were active only to early 15th century. After that provincial government was replace by kings' castle province administration and parish level meetings.

Local parish (fin: pitäjä, sv: socken - as local governance) was a basic unit of local governance and parish meetings made decision on local issues and gave judgements in minor offences. During the medieval era, there were about 100 parishes (fin: seurakunta - as religious institution) in Finland. The name 'pitäjä' may come from the Finnish pagan era locally communities, who managed the law keeping (with meetings called käräjät), religious feasts and occasionally hill forts. At least name is originally Finnish and does not come from Swedish like most other governmental terms.

During provincial meetings, a lawspeaker (lagman (sv) - laamanni (fin)) explained the legal issues to the participants. They were important officials, who little later acted as judges as well. The first signs of this institution in Finland are from year 1324. In 15th century Finland was split in two lagsman districts (lagsagla (sv) - laamannikunta (fin)), northern and southern. Third district was formed in Karelia later in the 15th century.

Medieval Towns and Centers

The high and late middle ages were time of urbanization in Europe. In Finland, most new towns were small, but Aboa (latin name of Turku (market town) or Åbo (river settlement)) was important local center. The town was born around the year 1200, which makes it the oldest modern city in Finland. It was also the largest with about 2500 inhabitants. Around this time the castle was built. In the year 1229 the Bishop of Finland was moved from Nousiainen to Koroinen, where the first bishops house and church were built in 1229. It is situated about 2 km from modern center. There had been older, iron age commercial centers before, but many of them lost their importance after Christianisation.

The oldest known map of Turku (1634). The cathedral
is situated on the right side of the river.

The other old towns born in early Medieval era were Porvoo (Borgå officially town from year 1380) built beside old iron age hill fort, Ulvila (Ulvsby) (officially town from year 1365) built in the old market place and Vyborg, old Karelian center from 11-12th centuries (1293/1403). All three towns were built in or near the delta of a large river.

The first church was built in Ulvila in the 13th century and beside the church was a trading post. There were some German merchants in town. According the archaeological finds Viborg was Karelian trade post as early as on the 10th century. It had up to 2000 inhabitants during the medieval era. It had more freedoms than the western towns. It was only Finnish town enclosed by walls. Porvoo had a hill fort already in the 9th or 10th century, but medieval settlement was from 13th or 14th centuries. The first wooden church was built in the 13th century. First stone church replaced it in 15th century and it was later expanded. Both Ulvila and Porvoo got their town rights in 1340s. They had with Rauma about 1000 inhabitants each.

Later medieval towns were Rauma (1442) and Naantali (Nådendal 1442). Rauma was located nearby the former iron age centers. There was Franciscan monastery from 15th century and their influenced reached far in the inland to Hame and Ostrobothnia as well. The harbour was originally beside the center. Naantali was built around the Brigittine nunnery (founded in 1438). It was the center of needlecrafts and important destination of pilgrimage. Naantali was the smallest of the medieval towns with only 200-300 inhabitants.

Medieval Swedish silver coin
(14th-15th century)

The number of towns was limited by the government, but likely no more would have been needed. Inland had no cities, because the connections were not good, although the medieval Häme Castle (built around 1300) was connected to Turku with Oxen Road, so called Hämeen Härkätie. The original 13th century fortification was probably located to nearby Hakoinen.

The German merchant were well established in medieval Finish towns and commercial centers. They ruled the commerce and local councils. The towns had privileges, including self-governance, courts and exclusive right to commerce and crafts. Monasteries were usually located in the towns or as in the case of Naantali, the town crew around them. Dominican monks (1249) resided in Turku; Franciscans in Åland, Rauma and Viborg. The wealthy Naantali monastery was for Brigittine nuns. There might have been nunnery for St Anna in Turku as well. There were also a Cathedral Schools in Turku (1276) and Viborg (16th century) educating priests and officials.

Most important import was salt. Hops, wine and woollen fabrics were imported as well. In the years of bad crops also grains needed to be imported. Exports were mainly pelts, dried fish and train oil (seal fat). Normally foreign and Swedish trade were handled by towns, the peasants could sail directly to Stockholm. Nobility could own the ships and did not always follow the rules either. Tallinn ruled the Russian trade.

While officially peasants should have treaded just with their nearest town, in practice Finnish peasants living near the coast traded independently abroad until early 20th century. Different regions had different orientations of trade. Western Finland was oriented towards Stockholm, where as Uusimaa, Karelia and Southern Häme was oriented towards Tallinn and Livonia. Occasionally trade reached further, towards Hansa towns in like Stralsund and Danzig (modern Gdańsk). Also westcoast towns were more like satellites of Turku and Stockholm, while Porvoo and Viborg frecuently traded with Tallinn.

Houses of Turku a lot like the late Medieval type,
only with larger windows and better chimneys.
Luostarinmäen museo by Volker von Bonin, NBA. CC-BY-4.0

In towns, as well as in country, people had animals like horses, cows, goats, hens and pigs and often a small piece of field to grow some plants or keep their cattle on. Peasants arrived to the cities during the market days to bring their produce, which helped the feed the cities. There were only open gutters in the streets, where people threw their sewage. Rubbish heaps were common. Outhouses and saunas were could be used as well. There were both private and public saunas. Bordellos could have been related to public saunas. Latrines were first built in castles during 13th century. From excavations of medieval Turku some wooden outhouses have been found. In the 17th century, every town house had to have outhouse. Although most town houses had outhouses, public conveniences were non-existent.

Towns had no official plans, but they grew organically when new place was needed. Many streets were not pawed, but some were repeatedly covered with layers of wood or branches to make them drier or more passable. In smaller town like Porvoo, there were not necessary any paved streets. Most houses had gables towards the street and doors on the street side. The houses were made log and they were "smoke cottages" (savupirtti, description later) like in the country. The houses might have been covered with peat and grass, on which goats might have grazed.

In the 15^th century better double-room buildings ("pari-tupa") were begun to be built in wealthy households. Sides were built towards the street. Doors were in the middle of the long sides and inside there were two rooms in both sides of the hallway. Many houses begun to have stone foundations and small glass windows. Prober stoves were built with mortar and primitive chimneys or smoke tubes guided the smoke outside. In the 16th century, this new type of building became to be more common.

Raseborg castle 1500.

Medieval town halls were meeting places of the town councils. There were chest with town money, town archive and maybe a cell to hold suspects before they could be judged. Usually punishments were either bodily or monetary as well as dishonourings and driving criminal away from town or district. Sometimes if serious crimes were judged, the condemned could be executed.

In Turku, there were stone and brick houses as well that could have several floors. Only nobility or wealthiest of merchants could built these houses. Many of them had long side towards the street. On the other side of the house there was hidden courtyard. Houses could have had wooden roofs. No houses have been preserved from medieval era. Kastelholma was built with stones from church buildings of Turku and later others knocked medieval houses down for their own purpose. Many medieval town also burned down repeatedly. Big Fire of Turku in the early 19th century almost totally burned down the town and after it, new town plan was made and the medieval town plan vanished. Latrines have been found from medieval Turku and both wooden and stone houses could have had wooden drains as well.

There were a lot of castles and fortifications built in Finland during the medieval era. Besides the castle of Turku and Häme and Olav's Castle in the east there were other important fortifications as well. The bishops of Finland had their own castle in Kuusisto near the town of Kaarina. It was found in the end of 13th or in the beginning of 14th century. It lost its importance along the catholic church.

Viborg Cathedral (1642)

Kastelhom in Åland was built in the 14th century. Its heyday was in 15-16th century. The first mention of Raseborg castle is from the year 1378 and it was most likely build in the previous years. Its main end was to protect Swedish interests against Hanseatic city of Tallinn. Both Swedish and Danish forces battle of its control and even pirates tried to rule it. The castle was abandoned few years before Helsinki was found for the same purpose. There were some other minor castles and fortifications in important places, but many of them were already pulled down during the middle ages, some as early as in the late 14th century. Some of the fortifications might have been mainly log-structures like Korsholma, near the Vasa.

Churches were also important centers of power. 80 stone churches have survived from medieval era. Many of the churches were built in the former sacred places of pagan religion. The oldest ones were built in Åland Islands during 12th century. The churches in the Proper Finland are mainly from 14th century. Some of the remains contain only the vestry built inside or beside the wooden church. For example, in Häme province there were total of 7 surviving vestries. Many of them are from the end of the medieval era. No wooden medieval churches have survived, like in Norway. The church was the base of municipalities and spread its influence to the rural areas much more efficiently than state.

Shape of the medieval church were square and roofs were steep. First churches even in towns could have been wooden. Stone churches could also be made larger. There were special patterns of bridge building used during the medieval era.

Village Life

Many villages in Finland are from medieval era or from late iron age, some even older. Although the buildings are later, the settlements and residents are older. Sometimes the same farm or estate has been in family for centuries. Many villages changed a lot in 18th century partitions of land. Life in the medieval Finland was different than in Central and West Europe.

Even after the troubled crusade era, security was moderate at best. Finns were captured along Karelians and Baltic people and sold in the Volgan and Crimean slave markets. The slave traders reached as far as Lapland. The last raid in southern coast of Finland happened in mid-16th century.

Old Fashioned 'kiuas' oven still built in some smoke saunas.
Photo by Yves Lemarcheix. PD

From 14th century onward Western Finnish village fields were divided in the strips of land, like in many other open-field systems in Europe. Yet Finnish peasants were not bonded by land, but mostly independent land owners. There was no system of serfdom in medieval Finland. Larger estates could have could have maids and farm hands. Only in the 17th century a form of tenant farming, where the rent was usually paid with rent service. Even then the laborers were usually not bonded for longer than a year of time.

Although Finnish peasants were freemen, who owned their farms, they had very little political power on state level. On local level they participated in local councils and had little more responsibility and significance.

In Western Finland, the birth rate rose during 13th and 14th centuries, most likely because the church did not allow the abandonment of the children. Because the old village could only support certain level of inhabitants, the new settlements outside the old village were made in the former hunting grounds. In some places the number of villages could eightfold during medieval era. But then village were also abandoned during medieval era and especially just after middle ages during the years 1570-1630 during the great abandonment. Usually abandonment was due to various crisis.

The later type of smoke cottage

In Eastern Finland, the agriculture was for long the slash-burn type. Field was more plotted than striped. People lived with their extended families, brothers together. This family type was common in Eastern Europe and in many parts of Asia. The family type westernised as late as in 18th century. The last to split their families were independent peasants in the slash-burn region of Savo.

In both Eastern and Western parts of the country were log houses, that had no chimney. They were called smoke cottages ('savupirtti' or 'savutupa). During the medieval era, only castles had smokeless rooms in Finland. The chimneys were built in farm houses after the bricks became well available after the peasants started to make bricks first in the 16th century and in the western Finland a lot of people built chimneys during 16th century. While the house type started to change soon after medieval era, the last of this kind of houses were used in most remote districts still in 1950s.

There were two phases of this building type. The older one (savupirtti) did have similar stone ovens (kiuas) that were used later in the smoke saunas. It was basically a square pile of stones with fireplace in the center. In front of the fireplace was the heart were the cooking was made. Originally people used clay pots to cook. In the summer time, outside huts were used for cooking. In many times the only source of daylight was the small opening in the wall meant for smoke. While this type of the building was heated, the door must have been open as well, to let the smoke out. There could be some serious draught in the winter time and smoke could harm eyes as well. The buildings were usually square shape. The lowest logs were laid on the ground, without foundations.

Mämmi is made is made with typical
sweetening process and is said to
have its roots in medieval era.
Photo by Martin Terber CC-BY-2.0

The later (savutupa) first became popular in 13th century. The smoke often accumulated high in the ceiling and was not so displeasing. The opening was now in the ceiling. The better stone ovens were built with mortar. Most of the new parsonages build in the early medieval era were of this type. The wall opening could also be covered with pig bladder, which let some light in. The houses were bigger in eastern Finland, where the families were peasants, because they were extended.

Because other buildings were not heated, animals might have stayed on the other end of the house, especially during intense cold. Were there was not slash-and-burn agriculture, each field was left fallow every second year. In the country, people usually relieved on the edge of the field and so the faeces were well utilized. Only in the 16th century separate outhouses began to be built and even after that they were only popularized slowly.

In the country, people lived in natural economy. Families were highly self-sufficient, although metallic tools and salt might have been bought. Only few percent of population lived in the cities. Food was mainly sourced from forests, waters and fields. Even taxes were mainly paid in form of food.

There were many methods of cooking food during Middle Ages and many of them are still in daily use. Food was usually served in single pot and eaten either directly of there or on top of the bread. Especially porridges were popular. Main grains were barley and rye. Eaters had a large wooden spoon and sometimes small table knife as well. Most common plants in use were cabbage, different onions, broad beans, turnip, parsnip and nettle. Meats, eggs, fish and sour-milk products were eaten, when they were available.

Lake Paijanne (Lacus Piente) had plenty fish according
Olaus Magnus (1539)

Food was stored in root cellar, storage clamps or in a root pit made to storage turnip and like. Food was fermented, dried, smoked, treated with potash or stored in whey, fat or vinegar. Most of the storage methods gave such a special taste spices didn't matter. Salt was expensive in medieval Finland, but when the salt become more affordable, salting replaced fermenting oily fish at least in the western parts of the country.

Honeybees were not kept in medieval Finland and imported honey was expensive. The local sources of sweet were spring birch sap and maybe the common polypody, which root (rhizome) is sweet and tastes like liquorice. In the autumn forest were full of berries. Some old folk recipes use method of dulcification of starches to make dishes sweet. With this method for example mämmi, which is considered to have roots in medieval era, is made. The method is a lot like malting of grain. Berries were available in the end of summer and during the autumn. Many of them were not that sweet either.

Traditionally Finnish beer was seasoned with juniper branches or Labrador tea (Rhododentron tomentosum). Later is mildly toxic and the beer made with it could make you faint. From 14th century onwards hop was known in Finland and later it was required to be grown in every farm. Primitive beer called 'sahti' is still made at home in Häme district. It is strong festive beer.